Ethereum co-founder Vitalik Buterin has introduced a new kind of digital identity system dubbed “pluralistic identity,” arguing it could protect privacy while enabling fair participation in digital life.
In a blog post published Sunday, Buterin explored the promise and pitfalls of zero-knowledge (ZK) proof-wrapped IDs, warning that even privacy-preserving systems can carry serious risks if they rigidly enforce one identity per person.
The Ethereum (ETH) mastermind noted that many new digital ID projects use zero-knowledge proofs to let users prove they have a valid ID without revealing personal details. Examples include World ID, which has surpassed 10 million users, Taiwan’s digital ID project, and European Union initiatives increasingly adopting ZK technology.
“ZK-wrapping solves a lot of important problems,” he wrote, but warned that “ZK-wrapped ID still has risks,” especially because enforcing one ID per person can undermine pseudonymity and expose users to coercion.
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Single digital IDs could kill pseudonymity
One key risk Buterin identified is that platforms could force users into a single, trackable identity, eliminating the ability to maintain separate pseudonymous profiles. “In the real world, pseudonymity generally requires having multiple accounts,” he said.
Without this flexibility, he argued, users could find themselves in a world where “all of your activity must de-facto be under a single public identity,” heightening dangers from government or employer surveillance.
Buterin also rejected the idea of using “proof of wealth” alone as an anti-Sybil measure, saying it excludes people unable to pay and concentrates power among the wealthy. “The theoretical ideal is something in the middle, where you can get N identities at a cost of N²,” he said.
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Buterin proposes pluralistic IDs
To achieve a flexible approach, Buterin proposed pluralistic identity systems, where no single authority controls identity issuance, as the “best realistic solution.”
He explained these could be explicit, using social-graph-based verification like Circles, or implicit, relying on multiple ID providers — government documents, social platforms, and others — so no one ID gains near-total market share.
“Any form of pluralistic identity… is naturally more error-tolerant,” he noted, pointing out that this flexibility helps stateless individuals or those unable to access traditional IDs.
Ultimately, Buterin argued the best outcome would merge one-per-person identity schemes with social-graph systems to bootstrap diverse, global identity networks.
“If their market share gets too close to 100%, they shift the world… to a one-per-person model, which has worse properties,” he warned, stressing that only pluralistic identity can balance privacy, inclusivity, and resistance to abuse.
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